| Summary
| | In the course of the 13th century the first towns in the Sound region and an increasing trade with food came into existence. The Scanian market and the market towns in the Sound became the centre.
The period was also marked by the changes in the social structure and the tremendous decrease in population in connection with the plague (the Black Death) in the middle of the 14th century. |
The thrall system was abolished successively and instead the work was done by copyholders. The new cultivations ceased and stagnation arose in the production of agricultural products. An ecological crisis brought with it hard times. The plague raged in the second half of the 14th century. The Scanian market in Falsterbonäset flourished thanks to the large intake of herring in combination with great demand.
A hierarchical feudal society was built with privileges for the noble. The royal power tried to strengthen its position through an expansive policy and through the improvement of the fortifications the Sound region. In spite of this the royal power was weakened in the 14th century. In this connection Scania was turned over to Sweden for a while. Valdemar Atterdag got Denmark back on its feet, but came into conflict with the Hanseatic towns.
Many monasteries developed into big business. The ecclesiastical art started to describe the situation of man and man´s needs instead of the earlier motives of God´s glory and omnipotence.Feudalism
| | According to church teachings everybody is equal unto God. It was not unusual that biblical figures were painted as ordinary Nordic human beings in everyday situations Even if there were big differences between the different classes in society in reality, everybody could go to hell. That was the equality. |
The Social Structure
In the course of the high Middle Ages an extensive change in the country´s social structure takes place. The characteristic of the European feudalism´s hierarchical construction, where king, church and nobility are on top and around 90 % of the population at the bottom, worked all the way through to the beginning of the 19th century.
The ownership of Denmark´s land was divided between the three main players in the upper classes, who administered the right to use it with duties of some sort to a growing number of copyholders.
To understand this we can start by looking at the development in the squire classes.
Knights and Vassals
The magnate class took on the defence of the country, but also tasks within the administration . In exchange these noblemen were exempt from taxation and they obtained the right to use the crown´s land. In these districts the noblemen were granted freedom of action and the duties from the copyholders belonged to them.
This system, which is called the district or vassal system, was built on mutual obligations, typical of the feudal society.
Nobility had a central role in the feudal system and in many ways was able to dominate the royal power. All of Denmark was for a period in the 14th century entirely in the hands of nobility and these feudal overlords´ powers was so great that they in one period (1332-1340) chose not to have a king.
Knights. Örslev Church | 
Musicians. |
Clergy/The Bishops and the Priests
The clergy was divided into different social groups, ranging from the bishops, who were landowners like the nobility, to the ordinary priest, who almost shared the conditions of the peasants.
Gradually the church and monastery estates grew to a considerable amount. In Scania and Zealand for instance.
However, it was necessary for the king, church and nobility that the necessary and motivated labour was present. And here the obsolete production form of the thrall stood in the way. The thrall should be a copyholder.
Bishop |
The Thralls with New Freedom
In the early Middle Ages Denmark was a society where the thralls carried out the hardest work, often in connection with the clearing of forests and the building of churches.. Slaves had been recruited among war prisoners, not least during the Viking raids and were the lowest in society. The landscape laws, which were written in the first half to the 13th century testifies to a society, which had a clear division of the free and the not free people.
However, the church introduced a ban on making thralls of Christians. Thus the supply of thralls was diminished and the prices rose. The result was that farmers and magnates preferred to hire season workers. The new cultivation also made it better to let the thralls establish themselves and to cultivate new land. This gave the thralls freedom and positioned them in the lowest step in the peasant class.
Moore Copyholders
As the land of the church and the nobility was free of tax it became common that independent farmers handed over their land to the church and the magnates to become copyholders. This is why there were very few independent farmers in Denmark. Independent farmers owned only 10% of the land; in Sweden the number was 52%.
Copyholders and Male Serfdom
The duty they paid was in kind or in money. In the 15th century the magnates began to demand work, villeinage of the copyholders.
Special to Zealand and Lolland-Falster was the so-called male serfdom, which was introduced in the 15th century. This involved that the male estate population had to stay on the estate, so that the copyholders´ farms were always manned. This meant that the landowners had a more secure accession of labour, but it also entailed a sort of serfdom for the copyholders.
The Commoners
The commoners were rather a modest group in this period, however, it grew wit the increasing trade and business. A development, which meant that parts of the rural population went to the growing market towns.
The Peasants
The peasant class in the 13th century was mixed group. There were independent farmers, who paid taxes to the crown. There were also the copyholders, who made their living off the land of the crown, the church and the nobility and paid a duty. There were also smallholders, who worked on the farmers´ land, farmhands, and maids, who lived and earned their keep with others.
Adam working. | 
Eva. |
Class Society Takes Shape.
Gradually the social structure becomes more simple. With the establishment of the copyhold relation the medieval society begins to develop a more firm structure, a class society with a hierarchical construction, where the royal power is the top of the pyramid consisting of clergy, nobility commoners and peasants.
The King
1.rank: clergy
2.rank: nobility
3.rank: commoners
4.rank: peasants
The clergy was separated into different social groups, from the bishops, who were landowners like the nobility, to the common priest, who shared the conditions of the peasants. The commoners were a very modest group of people; however, they increased their numbers owing to the increasing trade and business in the late Middle Ages. This process also entails that parts of the rural population move to the growing market towns.Critical Times
| | The growth in the Middle Ages stopped around 1300. Climate deteriorations, crop failures, ecological crises, political crises and the plague flourished in the 14th century. |
Deteriorating Conditions for the Productions
Up to the 14th century Europe had experienced a strong upturn with population increase, new cultivations and flourishing trade and shipping. In the 14th century dark clouds gathered and a marked deterioration began. In the end of the 13th century they had terminated new cultivations and it began to become difficult to provide labour for the estates. Reasons for the decline may have been that the exploitation had reached a natural level, because the population was reduced. The market was saturated. In addition it is to be supposed that the great cultivation had brought with it a marked clearing of forest with had resulted in erosion and sand drift.
Climate changes (falling temperatures) also resulted in periods of crop failures. It was a general ecological crisis.
The Political Crisis
The crisis involved a diminishment of the population, changes in the structure of the population, but also changes in the power structure. The king continued to be the head of the realm, but his exertion of power, had to take place in cooperation with the aristocracy. The noble magnates strengthened their position, when the principalities were inherited.
The bishops´ fiefs also wanted sovereignty and the started a number of conflicts especially between the archbishops Jacob Erlandsson and Jens Grand.
Castles
At the same time Erik Menved led a very aggressive policy and he strengthened the fortifications in the kingdom. This was evident in the Sound region, where a number of castles were renovated or built.
The old circular defence tower in Helsingborg was exchanged for the square Kärnan. This tower construction became a massive and impenetrable castle. The walls were more than 4 metres thick and the tower´s height was 30 metres. It had to be able to withstand the art of war of the times. Falsterbohus was also rebuilt and this castle also had a square tower. The rebuilding of these two castles started around 1310. Falsterbohus took over the tasks of the Skanør Castle and Helsingborg and Kärnan developed into the crown’s most important fortification in Scania. Erik Menved also expanded the Lindhold Castle in Southern Scania. This castle also had a square tower.
In Bornholm Hammershus is gradually developed into the largest castle in the North. In Vordingborg a castle complex is built to the defence of the country´s south border and in Kalundborg in in West Zealand the old fortification of Esbern Snare is enlarged. Finally in Valdemar Atterdag´s time (1340-1375) an administrative centre with a central castle is built in Gurre in North Zealand.
Castles | 
Kärnan, Helsingborg | 
Kärnan in Sections | 
The Interior of Kärnan | 
Hammershus |
The Goose Tower | 
Vordinborg Castle | 
The Castle Hill | 
Gurre Castle | 
Gurre |
Gurre Complex | 
Gurre Castle |
Weakened Royal Power
The expansion policy and the military expansion was dearly bought and Erik Menved´s pledging almost led to the dissolution of the kingdom under his successor Christofer II. The royal power weakened and the bad economy and the pledging continued. It went so far that the Holsteiner counts Gerhard of Rendsborg and Johan af Plön had the real power in Denmark. Johan possessed large parts of Zealand, Scania, Blekinge, Halland and Lolland. In Scania the economy was tolerable thanks to the Scanian market, but here they were dissatisfied with Johan of Plön´s pro-German rule. The result was that the archbishop in Lund, Karl Eriksen, began a campaign among the Scanian magnates, which led to the election of the Swedish king Magnus Eriksson as king in Scania at a meeting in Kalmar in 1332.
After this Swedish troops went into Scania and a peace was made with Johan. The Scanian parliament then accepted Magnus as their king and Magnus took over Johan´s pledge, paid 34000 mark in silver and could then call himself king of Sweden, Norway and Scania. 10000 mark of the pledge was for the Helsingborg castle. The pledge included Scania, Blekinge and Ven. These areas were thus united with Sweden from 1332.
In 1341, the year after Valdemar Atterdag had become king of Denmark, even southern Halland was handed over to Sweden.
The Conflict with the Hanseates
Valdemar succeeded in rebuilding Denmark and in 1360 Scania, Halland and Blekinge could be reunited with the Danish kingdom. This took place after a long siege of Helsingborg Castle.
Valdemar thus strengthened the Danish kingdom and the result was that the Hanseatic towns felt threatened. Several Hanseatic towns made an alliance with Sweden and Norway. The Swedish king Albreckt of Mecklenburg and the Hanseatic towns carried out a conquest against Scania in 1368. Peace was made in 1370 and Denmark kept Scania, but the Hanseates took over Falsterbo, Skanör, Malmö and Helsingborg. In addition the Danes were forced to give up 2 thirds of the income from the Scanian market.
Mass Killings | 
Scull Shot |
The Kalmar Union
The daughter of Valdemar Atterdag, Margrethe succeeded in skilfully establishing a three state union between Denmark, Sweden and Norway in 1397. The agreement was signed in Kalmar. The background was that Sweden was dissatisfied with the pro-German policy of Albreckt of Mecklenburg, at the same time as Denmark had great problems with the Hanseates. A strong Nordic union, The Kalmar union, was to become the prescription against these problems.
Søborg Castle | 
Margrehe 1. | 
Gjorslev Castle | 
Erik of Pommern | 
Dalowo |
Esrum Monastery
| | In time the Esrum Monastery became the larges landowner in North Zealand. It grew into a large enterprise with many different products. It owned a large number of copyhold farms in North Zeland, but it also had properties in Scania and Halland. |
Esrum´s Monastery
Esrum Monastery in North Zealand was established as a Cistercienser monastery in 1151 and was linked to the main monastery Clairveaux in France, named after the reformer Bernard af Clairveaux. There are still faint traces of the monastery´s ideal situation on a flat stretch close to Esrum Lake and the stream, which furnished the monastery with drinking water and water power. Esrum Monastery was favoured with gifts in the form of land and property from the start and in the course of the 13th century it developed into the largest land owner in North Zealand.
Esrum Monastery. | 
The Waterway | 
Esrum´s Location | 
Bernard of Clairvaux |
Bryde- and Copyhold Farms
In the first period until the middle of the 13th century, production on the large breeding farms were emphasized. These were the so-called grangiers, which was worked by the monks and the lay brothers of the monasteries. They primarily functioned as the monastery´s workers and did not participate fully in the monastery life. The lay brother arrangement was probably also a safeguard against poverty in times with plenty of labour.
Cistercians order did not pay tithe and the earth that the monks inherited and cultivated was exempt for taxes, which made the grangie system profitable. From around the middle of the 13th century it became hard to find labour and they started to dismantle the grangiers in favour of bryde farms, farms with bailiffs and affiliated smallholders. Around this time an internal regulation was abolished, which entailed that the land of the orders were not to be used for copyhold and after this they established copyhold farms.
The Cultivation Structure
The cultivation structure with bryde farms and the three furlong holding existed in the western part of North Zealand, Holbo Herred, where the best land was. In North Zealand there was a very varied production starting with a sort of forest agriculture, where the distinction between farm land and forest was vague and hay harvest and grazing played a major part.
Studies of Esrum Monastery´s Land Book from 1497 shows that more peasants did villeinage with hay harvest than with harvest of corn and the straw after the corn harvest must have been mixed with weeds and nourishing for the widespread livestock. Moreover mast production for pigs and timber felling also played a major part.
Production and Food
The composition of the natural produce and the situation of the monasteries in North Zealand show that the vegetable production dominates the northern and western parts, while the animal production dominates around Nødebo near Esrum Lake, where there were stretches of meadow land for grazing around the lake. Firewood and fish also play a part around Hornbæk. It is difficult from the source material to say anything precise about conditions of life nutrition, but one source the Scanian so-called ledingsret, gives an indirect picture of the composition of the food.
Esrum´s Production |
The Possessions of the Monastery
The possessions of the monastery stretched as far as the Sound Coast, where the utilization of water power for the mills took place around the present Egebæksvang.
However, the monastery´s possessions did not end in Zealand alone. Besides the 311 copyold farms, the monastery also owned an unknown number of farms in Scania. Moreover the monastery also owned a mill in Helsingborg and two stalls, which they had inherited. The interest in Halland related to timber, for instance oak, which as early as the 12th century was becoming scarce in Zealand.Trade and Towns
| | The medieval trade routes took its starting point in the trade routes of the Viking Age.
Gradually technology and the cargo-carrying capacity was improved and the kogge relieved the knar boats.
The region´s surplus of mainly foods was sold in a complicated trade pattern, which also was the foundation of the growth in the urban communities. |
All the way back in prehistoric times there have been trade between the North and Southern Europe and in the late Iron Age and early Viking Age amber, fur and slaves have been sold and traded for luxury goods like glass.
In the 8th century the trade between the Mediterranean and Northern Europe was arranged via the Frankish realm, but when it succumbed in the beginning of the 9th century and the Arabs conquer large parts of the Mediterranean the North in the Viking Age came to play an important part in north-south as well as the east-west trade. In southern Scandinavia Hedeby in Southern Jutland became a prominent trade centre, whereas further to the east and north are Gotland and Birka in Sweden.
Trade Routes |
Shiptypes
It was mainly the Vikings´ ship technology, which secured them a preferential position in the Baltic trade from around the year 800. Magnates and peasants fitted out ships for expeditions in long ships, which could carry around 9 tons.
The later developed, but also clinker-built ships of the knar type, which also were used for sailing in the North Atlantic, could carry around 20 tons.
In the beginning of the period it was probably difficult to discern between looting- trade- and colonization expeditions, but around the transition to the Middle Ages around the year 1050, trade plays a more important part. This is mainly due to the ship type the kogge, which could carry up to 30 tons and around the year 1200 up to 200 tons.
Kogge and knarr | 
Knarr | 
Kogge | 
The Malmøkogge | 
Model |
Hork |
Goods Types
From around this time the trade also changes to more everyday articles like corn, fish and meat, which come from the surplus production provided by the new cultivation methods. These products could be sold in the town communities, which flourishes in the course of the 12th and 13th century in Northern Germany. These Hanseatic towns came to control large parts of the trade in the Baltic by way of an organizational and technological superiority.
The Town Development
The town development in the beginning of the Middle Ages is limited. Hedeby loses its prominent part and Lübeck is around 1300 a trade centre in the Baltic area. In Denmark there are only around 20 towns around 1150 and although the number increased to 60 around 1250, they were of limited character, often localised close to castles, where the inhabitants could seek shelter in uncertain times of war or piracy. The many towns with the prefix –borg (castle), for instance Helsingborg and Vordingborg testify to this.
The question as to how the towns in the Middle Ages come into being and developed is still the subject of debate. The royal power may be the cause as well as the trade and the beginning of range production.
The Cities | 
Lübeck | 
Visby | 
Stege |
Early Towns
Lund, Helsingborg and Roskilde in Zealand are founded before 1150. Of these Lund can be taken back to the 11th century. Under the reign of Knud den Store(1018-1035) Lund developed into the most important currency place in Denmark and crafts waste show signs of range production at the end of the 11th century and the beginning of the 12th century.
Most towns have been founded before 1350. Some of the like Næstved, Ringsted and Sorø are in the country, while others, typically the –borg towns, are situated on the coasts and are connected to the increasing trade and production along the coasts. Most of the borg towns are placed in the southern part of the region, facing the German area. It also reflects the political and cultural orientation in the Middle Ages. Later towns are mainly placed around the Sound.The Scanian Market
| | The herring fishing in the Sound and around the Falsterbo Cape created the Scanian market, which became an important economic centre in the Sound and Baltic region. Some years 300.000 barrels of herring were produced. The access to salt in North Germany and the Catholic Church´s demand for meat free fast were good conditions for the herring market and it became an important source of income for the royal power. |
Although the development of the cities in the Sound region was modest compared to the Hanseatic towns, the Danish kingdom had some advantages. Especially the herring fishing in the Sound.
The Scanian market | 
Herrings | 
Skanör Church |
The Castle Hill |
The Herring
The demand for herring, which was salted with salt from Lünebürger Heide, was great as the Catholic Church demanded meat-free days in connection with Lent. Often even Friday was considered a meat-free day.
As early as the 12th century Falsterbonäs became a centre for the herring trade, which took place from August 24th to October 9th. In this period thousands of visitors gathered there and that meant a significant upturn for Skanør and Falsterbo. Form the beginning Skanør was the main area, but in the 14th century Falsterbo became more important.
International Market
Traders from England, Scotland, Flanders and Normandy came to the herring market, but the most dominating traders came from Germany, especially Lübeck. They traded other goods besides herring. There was wide array of different goods, among them horses, butter, iron, tar, corn and handicraft products.
The dominance of the Lübecks was evident because they had their own church in Falsterbo. The fishing and the Scanian market in Skanør and Falsterbo yielded a large income to the Danish kingdom. A good fishing year in the 14th century could mean an export of 300.000 barrels of herring and it is estimated that one third of the Danish king´s income came from the Scanian market. The large production and the great demand made Skanør and Falsterbo to the most important market of the region in the 14th century.Murals
| | In the early Middle Ages the Majestas Domini motif dominated. In the High Middle Ages various Madonna motifs became common and at the same time the suffering and death of the Christ figure became prominent. Mary´s comfort against the suffering, death and the verdict were stressed. Common Mary motifs were Mary with the Christ child, Mary at the cross, the dead Christ in Mary´s lap (pietà) and the crowning of Mary. |
In the early Middle Ages Roman murals the Majestas Domini-motif dominates with Christ residing as the heavenly king. In the course of the 13th century it shifts to other main motifs. Around 1225-1250 there are examples of the Majestas motif changing into the Chair of Grace, where the Lord sits with the tormented Jesus in an emotional embrace.
The depiction of the suffering Christ, which is also present in the motif Smertensmanden (man of pain), usher in a different perception of religion, where the emotions and intensity play a larger part. They move away from the early medieval dogmatic perception of Christ, where Jesus rules as the heavenly king and the masculine virtues dominate.
The Propitiation | 
The Man of Pain |
The Mary Cult
An emotional development is also evident in a number of varied Mary-motifs. The Virgin Mary in the shape of the Madonna with the Child plays an important part in the early Middle Ages, but in connection with the increasing Mary worship a number of new motifs emerge. Birkerød Church in North Zealand has examples of large parts of this picture programme.
The Mary worship can also be seen as an expression of a wider foundation for Christianity, but also as a product of the movement of the reform monasteries. The Cistercians monk Bernard of Clairveaux advocates an elevation of the Mary figure. With the entry of the mendicant friars in the 13th century the movement towards a more emotional religious practising is reinforced. The monastery movement also seems to contribute to this.
The Apocalyptic Madonna |
The Heavenly Coronation of Mary
The motif The Heavenly Coronation of Mary emerges around 1250 in Zealand and Scania, for instance in Birkerød, Bavelse, Skibby and Bjäresjö churches. Perhaps it is due to the closeness to the spiritual centre in Lund.
In the motif we see Christ, who crowns Mary and thus promotes her to an elevated position at his side. With this a four-unity is established.
The relationship between Mary and Jesus, between mother and son, heavenly bride and groom, emerges as the ideal expression of a spiritual love relationship. That, which was once one and separate is united in higher unity. There is also a parallel to the courteous love ideal, as it is expressed in the minstrel poetry of the Middle Ages, where the knight turns his love to an elevated object, which he cannot reach.
The crowning of Mary | 
The Crowning of Mary |
Maria Miscordia
Mary also appears in another part as the merciful, Mary Miscordia, with the archangel Michael, the soul weigher. Mary carries the protective cloak, which holds the naked souls, who await judgment. Mary´s part as protector and the mediator of mercy is evident.
Mary with the protective cloak is another version of the Judgment motif. To the left in this picture is a detailed depiction of the consequences of the judgment. Naked sinners are ridden by devils. Behind Mary there is a bishop and St. Laurentius with the grill, perhaps hint about his attachment to the cathedral in Lund, which had St. Laurentius as the patron saint.
Maria Misericordia |
Judgment Day Scenes
The Judgment Day motif is also connected to Christ in a new version, where the crucified and resurrected Jesus sit in state on heaven´s arch as the World Judge with the sword of justice and the lily of grace from his mouth, surrounded by angels, who hold the suffering objects: The cross and three spikes and on the other side rod, scourge and hammer.
Judgment Day scenes are depicted in many murals and are perhaps the most dominant motif in the murals. Most detailed in Østerlars Church in Bornholm in a motif, which is the culmination of a 19 metres long frieze around the middle pillar of the church. The motif has up to 150 depicted souls. Here again it is Christ as the world judge with the sword of justice and punishment, who looks at a lot of chained souls, who are dragged towards the mouth of Hell.
The Mouth of Hell | 
Lost Souls | 
Judgment Day Motif | 
The Soul Weigher | 
Judgment Day Motif |
The Wheel of Fortune
In continuation of the Judgment Day scenes There is also the eternal admonition of imminent death and judgment, the Memento Mori motif. It is seen in the typical representation of the wheel of fortune, depicted in Birkerød Church in a new version, which shows three kings in three life phases with the subtext : renabo: I will reign, regno, I reign and regnavi, I have reigned.
With the plague and times of crisis around the middle of the 14th century, it is not strange that death (memento mori) and doom come to play an central part. All in all the struggle between good and bad comes to play a prominent part. Devils swarm the murals and also play a part in connection with Judgment Day, purgatory and the mouth of Hell. Fear of judgment was especially present and has been spelled out in pictures, talk and in writing, as in Bernard of Clairveaux hymn sermons.
The Wheel of Fortune |
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