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1050-1250
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Summary

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A built in runic stone in Hällestad´s Church in Scania. This illuminates the transition between the Viking Age and the Christian Middle Ages.
This age is also the transition to historic age in the North, when we have written sources on fates and folktales.
The many rune stones in the Sound region testify to the lingual and cultural community in the area in the Viking Age.
In the beginning of the period the expansion, which was typical of the Viking Age, ended. Instead an age with new cultivations and new settlements in communities started.
The central power was developed. Here the magnates as well as the church and the king were involved. Usually they cooperated, but there were also conflicts.
The magnates as well as the king supported the building of churches and monasteries. These enormous investments strengthened the position of the church. The architecture and the murals were marked by the Roman style. In the end of the period the Gothic style became prevalent and certain Christian perceptions changed.

Settlements and New Cultivations

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The research into place names is very helpful, when it comes to the determination of the period of the fixed settlements. That people started to settle down had to do with the new cultivation methods, which was introduced in connection with the increase of population. This demanded new settlements close to the new cultivation areas.


Settlements
In the Viking Age permanent settlements became more common. In order to date the settlements the place names are very helpful, even though the names in some cases may be older than the settlements.
It is assumed that the settlements via the place names can be dated like this:
Pre Viking Age: -by, -hög, -stad, -löv, -inge og -lösa
During the Viking Age: -bjer, -åkra, -tofta og -lund
Viking Age/ Middle Ages: -torp/ -arp/ -rup
Middle Ages: -röd
The endings –inge, -lev, -löse, -um and –by are common in the western parts of Zealand towards the Roskilde inlet, but this is also the case in Scania and Halland. In many of these areas archaeologists have made great finds. Another ending, -tofta, is common in Scania and in Zealand, but also in Normandy and eastern England, where the ending is connected to the colonisation of the Vikings. Thus it is generally believed that these place names endings are from the Viking age. If you look closer at these areas you will find that they have probably been easy to cultivate, for instance the ending –tofta is often found near water, where the conditions for the draining of the earth have been good.
Bosættelser i Nordsjælland
Bosættelser i Nordsjælland

New Cultivations
The end of the Viking age in the 13th century is marked by new cultivations. This is an international phenomenon, which was connected to the general population increase. With the new cultivations came new settlements and these can also be traced in the place names, which allow us to follow the agricultural expansion.

The ending, -tofta, is common in Scania and in Zealand, but also in Normandy and eastern England, where the ending is connected to the colonisation of the Vikings. Thus it is generally believed that these place names endings are from the Viking age.
If you look closer at these areas you will find that they have probably been easy to cultivate, for instance the ending –tofta is often found near water, where the conditions for the draining of the earth have been good.
-tofta in Scania
-tofta in Scania
-löv and -tofta in Scania
-löv and -tofta in Scania

New Villages
The ending –rup/torp could have something to do with the moving out to new towns. (However, this is not the case with all names ending in –torp, as this ending have been used in the early Viking age). The meaning of –torp has thus changed from time to time. The original meaning was probably “fence”, since then it has come to mean “meadow” and after that “new settlement”.
-arp in Scania
-arp in Scania
-arp in Scania
-arp in Scania
-rup in North Zealand
-rup in North Zealand
oversæt
oversæt
Oversæt
Oversæt

New Cultivations - New Settlements
With the new cultivations came new settlements and these can also be traced in the place names, which allow us to follow the agricultural expansion. The endings –holt/hult and –röd/ryd have clear connections to the new cultivations – holt/hult and röd/ryd is found in connection with cleared forest areas. These endings are common in northwestern Scania and in North Zealand.
-holt in Zealand
-holt in Zealand
-hult in Scania
-hult in Scania
-rødbyer in North Zealand
-rødbyer in North Zealand
-röd in Scania
-röd in Scania
Ryd in Småland
Ryd in Småland

A Common Cultural Area
You could say that Zealand had two cultural areas; a southwestern area, which consisted of cultivated plains and a northeastern with forests.
Scania similarly had three cultural areas; one southern with plains, which had been cultivated early, one northern with forest areas and forest settlements and small woods, which have been named “national settlements”. In this area and in North Zealand new cultivation areas were created through the clearing of forest and in these areas the place name ending –röd/ryd is common. The cultivation pattern in northwestern Scania and in North Zealand was similar. It must be added that the contacts between Scania and Zealand was most intense between Helsingborg and Elsinore.
The place names can be traced to “the throat” (hals), by which they meant the narrowest part of the Sound. The people around the North Sound was called “halsinger” and both towns were called “halsingarnas borg” and “halsingarnas öre” (beach). The importance the area around “halsen” had for the contacts between Zealand and Scania was early attested by Adam of Bremen in his work “De hamburgska ärkebiskoparnas historia” (1070). He noted that you could “sail to Scania from many places in Zealand. The shortest distance is from Helsingborg, where the narrowest part of the Sound is called Halsen and where the population is called halsingar”.
One may establish from this that North Zealand and north western Scania very early were quite homogeneous
Three Cultural Areas
Three Cultural Areas
New Settlements in Zealand
New Settlements in Zealand
Settlements in Scania
Settlements in Scania

Production

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New techniques improved agriculture. The plough and new harnesses made cultivation more efficient and demanded cooperation. The three field agriculture increased productivity.
The cultivation of new land in the early Middle Ages was connected to the introduction of new tools and improved methods.
Jordbruksarbete
Jordbruksarbete
Eva spinner
Eva spinner
Paradisets bönder
Paradisets bönder
The Old Plough
The Old Plough

The Plough
Since the 500 B.C. they had turned the soil by means of a stick, which was reinforced with iron. The stick, which was called an ard, was dragged through the field and led the earth to the side. The ard was pulled by an ox with a strap, which was taken around the neck of the ox.
The invention of the plough was a vast improvement. The most important difference between the ard and the plough was that the plough had a ploughshare, which turned the earth to the side. The plough often had wheels and ploughed deeper into the ground. In this way the earth was not just scraped, but the weeds were destroyed and manure could be used. In addition it could cultivate the heavy clay grounds. But the wheel plough was very heavy and could not have been used it they had not begun to use new harnesses. Instead of just strapping a strap to the draught animal, they placed a wood construction (beech wood) around the neck of the ox. In this wood straps were fastened so the plough could be dragged through the heavy mould. This construction doubled the pulling power, but it also made it possible to harness more than one animal to the plough.
Arden
Arden
The Construction of the Plough
The Construction of the Plough
The Wheel Plough
The Wheel Plough
The Construction of the Plough
The Construction of the Plough
Wheel Plough from Bornholm Around 1870
Wheel Plough from Bornholm Around 1870

The Three-Furlong Agriculture
The wheel plough used up resources and demanded more draught animals than the farmer could own. The result was that whole towns began to use the land jointly. A gærde (area), which could be cultivated, was called a furlong. This was divided into fields, which the individual farmer had at his disposal. The so-called two-field farming had been in use for a long time. This meant that they cultivated in one field, while the other lay fallow. This was necessary in order not to exhaust the land. They alternated between the fields every other year. When the farmer´s field was to be ploughed they cut a furrow across the middle of the field. They aimed at long narrow fields, as they did not want to turn the heavy plough too often. When the first long furrow in the middle of the field was made, they turned the plough and made a furrow close to the first and turned the plough and made another one, and so on. They ploughed in this way year after year and this led to the fact that every field was higher in the middle and ditches were formed between the fields. Thus the ditches became clear boundaries in each furlong and it was easy to see the boundaries between the farmers´ fields. The ditches also functioned as drainage.
The two-field agriculture meant that half the land of the town was productive. When they discovered that different kinds of seeds required different nutrients in the earth, they understood that the exhaustion could be avoided by changing the seed. Thus they were able to sow rye one year and wheat another and it was enough with fallowing every third year, which meant the productivity increased. This system was called three-furlong agriculture and this required that the farmers´ fields were divided into three instead of two fields. This efficient model agriculture, which meant that two-thirds of the earth was productive had as much influence on the increased productivity as the introduction of the wheel plough.
The Village
The Village
One Field for Every Farm
One Field for Every Farm
The ploughing technique
The ploughing technique
Ploughed Field
Ploughed Field
Field Remains
Field Remains
Højryggede agre
Højryggede agre
The Cultivation Structure of Ven
The Cultivation Structure of Ven
Work
Work
The Sickle
The Sickle

Lokal Differences
The three-furlong agriculture was not introduced everywhere, there were local variations and different systems of cultivation in different areas. In North Zealand and in Scania, where the farms were situated in the border area between forest and field, animal husbandry and hay harvesting dominated. Here they continued the two-furlong agriculture for a long period of time.

King and Church

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In the early Middle Age the royal power and the church power were allied in the building of a central power and the administration of the realm.
Dalby Church, one of the first stone churches, was closely connected to the royal- and church power.

The Central Power

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The building of a central power took place in close cooperation between the royal power and the church. This alliance was formed early, which Harald Blåtand´s text on the great Jelling stone indicates: Won all of Denmark and christianized the Danes”. The alliance was to be exposed to pressure.

Harald Blåtand (Blue Tooth) (dead 985) saw the connection between a strong central power and the introduction of Christianity. The inscription on the famous Jelling stone states: “He won Denmark and Norway and Christianized the Danes.”
Jellingestenene
Jellingestenene

Military installations and money
That some sort of central power was establishing itself was also evident when they began to coin money and build large military installations like Trelleborg in west Zealand.
The Coins Works in Lund
The Coins Works in Lund
Knuds mønt
Knuds mønt
Knud the Holy
Knud the Holy

Christianity
Perhaps it was an exaggeration when Harald Bluetooth claimed that the Danes became Christian before the year 1000, but it is obvious that the royal power very early aimed at introducing and strenghten Christianity. As early as 1027 Knud the Great went to Rome, where he participated in the ceremonious crowning of a new German-Roman emperor on Easter Day. This crowning was a Christian act and Knud wanted to present himself as a great Christian prince.

Boundary Stones
Further signs that a Danish kingdom was beginning to establish itself was that they began to put up boundary stones. Five stones in Halland and one in Blekinge marked the border to Sweden. In north Scania no boundary stones were needed as the forest made out a natural border.
Border Stone
Border Stone

Adam of Bremens Depiction
At this time Adam of Bremen wrote his depiction of the North. This depiction was not only built on his own experiences, but also other sources like statements from the Danish king Svend Estridsen (1047-1076).
In Adam of Bremen you can see where the most important areas of the central power were. That Jutland did not seem very important to Adam of Bremen is apparent from his depiction of the area: ”There is almost no agriculture and is unfit for human settlement”.....”it is without doubt the most terrible part of the country and it is best to avoid the area; on land because of lack of seed, at sea because of the pirates”.
His depictions of Zealand on the other hand, are full of superlatives: ”The island Zealand, which is centrally situated in the Baltic, is great in size. Zealand, which is famous for the bravery of its inhabitants and its rich harvest, is two day´s journey long and almost as wide. The largest city is Roskilde – Denmark´s royal seat.

The Sound Region – The Centre of Power
Scania Adam of Bremen described as ”the loveliest region in Denmark” and that it ”is heavily armed with men, fertile in seeds and trade goods.”
It is obvious that the chief area was east towards the Sound region and that was applied to the ecclesiastical as well as the secular power. The king Svend Estridsen built around 1060 a royal farm and a church in the Dalby (outside Lund).

Bishops
Dalby became Episcopal residence in 1060, but was joined with Lund in 1066, when the Dalby bishop Egino moved to Lund and succeeded the former Lund Bishop Henrik. The Lund diocese thus included Blekinge, Halland and Bornholm. Sven Estridsen also worked to make Lund archbishopric. The royal power had its centre in Roskilde in Zeland and the ecclesiastical power had been attached to Lund in Scania. These two power institutions had thus been located in the Sound region.
Dalby Church
Dalby Church
Basilica
Basilica
Portal
Portal
The Crypt
The Crypt
The Baptismal Font
The Baptismal Font
Egino
Egino
The Dalby Book
The Dalby Book
Oversæt
Oversæt

Influence from England and Germany
The Dalby book is a gospel book and the oldest known Nordic book. It is thought that the ornamentation points toward an Anglo-Saxon influence.
But the archbishopric had connections to Hamburg-Bremen.

Lund´s Cathedral

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Knut the Holy gave tax money and land to Lund in 1085 in order for the cathedral to be built.
In 1104 Lund became archbishop seat for the entire north and shortly thereafter the building of Lund´s present catedral was started. It was finished in 1145.

Knud the Holy did not have a good relationship with the magnates, but his ambition was to strengthen the royal power with the power of the church. In his time Lund´s first stone church was built (1083). It was called Knud the Holy´s Cathedral, as the king had donated the field, on which the church was built. In 1085 he once again donated a gift to the Episcopal residence in Lund. It was several properties on both sides of the Sound. In addition the Lund cathedral was to receive tax money from the city of Lund, but also from the towns Lomma and Helsingborg.
The background for this was that the Danish towns paid a property tax to the king as the king owned the land that the cities were built on. The tax was called Midsummer tax. It was parts of this tax that Knud the Holy donated to the cathedral in Lund. This is noted in Knud the Holy´s donation latter from May 21st 1085. (The donation letter is quoted in Lund´s Cathedral´s first obituary, memory book from the middle of the 12th century). As the Midsummer tax only was paid by towns it is clear that Lund, Lomma and Helsingborg was founded before May 21st 1085 and that these three were the first towns in Scania.
In 1089 Lund had a new archbishop, Asser and in his time Lund became the episcopal set for all the North. This happened in 1103 and after this the building of Lund´s new cathedral was begun. It was built in the same place as Knud the Holy´s cathedral, but was to have dimensions, which was proper for a large archbishopric. (Lund was archbishopric for the North until 1152, when Norway had its own organisation while Sweden was released from Lund´s archbishopric in 1164 and after that Lund´s Cathedral was solely a Danish cathedral). To carry out this important building, the architect Donatus, who was probably of Lombardic origin, was called in. The high altar was inaugurated in 1123 and the church was finished in 1145. The church room is considered by many as one of the most beautiful in the Roman art.
Lund in the 16th Century
Lund in the 16th Century
Lund Domkirke
Lund Domkirke
St. Laurentius
St. Laurentius
Astronomical Clock
Astronomical Clock
Gospel Script
Gospel Script

The Archbishop
In 1089 Lund had a new archbishop, Asser and in his time Lund became the episcopal set for all the North. This happened in 1103 and after this the building of Lund´s new cathedral was started.

The Builder
As the builder of the impressive prestige building the Lombardi architect, Donatus, was summoned. The church room is considered by many to be among the most outstanding in the Roman church art. And the rough restoration in the 19th century is deplored by many. Characteristic of the Lombardi inspired art is the extensive use of decorative elements on portal figures.
Italian Influence (the south portal)
Italian Influence (the south portal)
The South Portal
The South Portal
Lund
Lund
The Crypt
The Crypt
The Troll, Finn
The Troll, Finn

The Magnates

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The royal power cooperated with a number of magnate families, of which the Hvide family in Zealand was the most noted. The magnates held the highest offices and left their mark in the building of churches.
The strengthening of the royal power and the ecclesiastical power probably happened at the expense of the magnates´ influence. This led to conflicts and this was especially evident under Knud the Holy (1080-1086 and it ended with the murder of Knud the Holy. Here we can see the dividing line between the interests of the central power and the magnates.

The Magnates Churches
The extensive building of stone churches in Denmark was to a great extent led by local magnates. In some churches magnates´ galleries have been preserved. Magnates who had financed the building of churches could from these galleries attend the services from an elevated position.
Knight´s motif
Knight´s motif
Fjenneslev´s church
Fjenneslev´s church
Kalundborg Church
Kalundborg Church
Magnate Gallery
Magnate Gallery
Vejby Magnate Church
Vejby Magnate Church

Memorial Plaques
Further proof of the importance of the magnate families can be seen in the memorial plaques, which exist in a number of churches in the region. The most well known is perhaps the one in Fjenneslev´s Church, where the plaque represents Asser Rig and Mrs.Inge (Gørlev).
Asser Rig was a son of Skjalm Hvide (dead around 1120), who was the founder of the Hvide dynasty, the most well-known magnate family in Denmark. Asser Rig was the father of Absalon, famous archbishop of Lund and founder of Copenhagen.
Memorial Tablet
Memorial Tablet
Ingeborg
Ingeborg
Esbern Snare
Esbern Snare
Founder Picture
Founder Picture
The Lord
The Lord

The King´s Officials
The long reign of King Niels from 1104-34, marks a consolidation period, where the church and royal power mutually fortify their position in the society. The royal power seems not to challenge the magnates, but extends its positions by appointing officials, among others a chamberlain, who was to take care of the financial circumstances and monetary matters in the realm, and later the king´s chancellor, who was his personal secretary. Incidentally this position was reserved for the bishop in Roskilde.
For the operation of the churches a tithe is introduced on production around 1125, which is allotted to the church and the clergy and this marks a step in the direction of the financial integration of the church into the medieval society, which is taking shape.
The military functions are separated and are transferred to the army and its officers. The duty of the men of the realm to volunteer for the defence of the nation goes back the Viking Age, but the arrangement is now modernised. The king´s housecarls of magnates are changed into a circle of local officials, or ombudsmen, which took care of the local administration. Larger units were managed by the king´s earl, magnates like for instance Skjalm Hvide, who was earl of Zealand. In Scania the king had a special official, or governor, the “gælker”.
The Bastrup Tower
The Bastrup Tower

The Battle of Fotevik
The Battle of Fotevik, June 4th 1134 signified the end of the long reign of King Niels. The battle is described as one of the most bloody in medieval Denmark. The cause was a long conflict between the descendants of Svend Estridsen (1047-74), about who was to succeed King Niels on the throne.
King Niels, who was the son of Sven Estridsen, landed with his son Magnus and a great army in Fotevik in the south-western part of Scania, in order to settle accounts with his closest rival, Erik Emune, who was the son of King Niels´ brother, Erik Ejegod. Erik Emune was supported by the archbishop in Lund, Asser, as well as by a mercenary German army of approximately 300 riders. It is believed that this was the first time a cavalry was used in Denmark.
The result was that King Niels´ army was destroyed, which had catastrophic consequences for the political stability in Denmark. Magnus, the son, fell and King Niels only just escaped. Three weeks later he was murdered by dissatisfied citizens in Slesvig. Among the fallen was a large part of the Danish administration, among them 5 bishops and around 60 clergymen. It is not known how many of the rank and file was killed. The Battle of Fotevik is described as early as 1138 in the Roskilde Chronicle and somewhat later by Saxo.
The Roskilde Chronicle
The Roskilde Chronicle

Lund, Denmark´s Capital
The victor, Erik Emune, was paid homage to on Sankt Libers Hill in Lund. He settled in the town and made it the capital of Denmark. However, Erik Emune developed into a bloodthirsty tyrant and was murdered in 1137 in Tinget in Ribe by the magnate Sorteplov, who ran through him with his lance.

Conflict

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This is what is left of Søborg´s Castle. In the middle of the 12th century it was an important basis for the bishop of Zealand.


Conflict Between Royal Power and Church
In archbishop Eskil´s time (1137-77) the relationship between the church and the royal power deteriorated. This conflict is described in the Roskilde chronicle, which is the first coherent account of Denmarks´s history. It is written around 1140, probably on archbishop Eskil´s initiative.

Archbishop Eskild
Eskil had in his youth studied in Heidelberg and Paris and had come in close personal contact with leading persons in the papal church. He was influenced by these and wanted to run the church independent of the secular power. In the spirit of the Cluny movement he worked for the building of monasteries, but he also agitated intensively for free bishop elections and took the pope’s side against the emperor in the so-called investiture conflict, which was about the right of the church to elect their own bishops. During a trip to Rome Eskil was taken prisoner by the emperor’s men and from his prison he wrote home.
Eskil was released and returned home. In Denmark he fell out with King Valdemar the Great, as Valdemar had formally subjected to the German-Roman emperor. Thus the church and the royal power landed on opposite sides in the investiture conflict. Eskild was forced into exile in 1161, but returned in 1168, where he was reconciled with the royal power.
Bishop Eskild
Bishop Eskild
Åhus
Åhus
Søborg Castle
Søborg Castle
Søborg´s Ruined Castle
Søborg´s Ruined Castle
Søborg´s Church
Søborg´s Church

Absalon, Bishop and Warrior

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At the end of the 12th century the church and the king started a close collaboration. Valdemar the Great and and Bishop Absalon carried out a crusade against the heathen Wends in North Germany.

King Valdemar the Great and Absalon
King Valdemar the Great appointed his childhood friend Absalon (who belonged to the Hvide family) bishop in Roskilde in 1158. He did this although Absalon still was not thirty years old, which was necessary to become a bishop. With this a cooperation was established and the good relationship betwen the church and the royal power was revived.
Absalon
Absalon
Højbro Plads
Højbro Plads

The Expedition to the Wendish Coast
In 1159 Valdemar and Absalon went on an expedition to the Wendish coast. Wendish raids had for a long time ravaged the Danish coast. The Danish attack on the Wendish was in reality also a raid and not a crusade, which was what they said.
The Crusade Against Rügen
The Crusade Against Rügen
The Crusade Against Rügen
The Crusade Against Rügen
Absalon
Absalon

Church Festival in Ringsted
The alliance between Absalon and the king was manifested at a big church festival in Ringsted in 1170, in connection with the burial of king Valdemar´s father in the newly built royal grave church. In thsi connection the king tried to strengthen the position of the royal family by appointing his son Knud as his successor, in spite of the fact that he had not been approved by the three parliaments in Jutland, Zealand and Scania.
St. Bendt´s Church
St. Bendt´s Church

Eskild in Monastery
In this church festival in Ringsted archbishop Eskild participated too. He resigned in 1177 and the archbishop seat was taken over by Absalon, who continued as archbishop in Roskilde. Eskild moved to the Monastery of Claiveaux in France.

Building New Churches
Absalon devoted himself to strengthen the position of the church in Denmark by building new churches and developing the organisation. He was actively involved in the building of Tikøb Church in North Zealand and Gumløse Church in northeastern Scania. Gumløse Church was inaugurated in 1197 and Absalon was present with the bishops from Växsjö and Trondheim. In a letter Absalon is mentioned by name with a local magnate. Even at Norra Åsums´s church in nort eastern Scania Absalon is mentioned with the words:
”Christ, Mary´s son, help those, who built this church, archbishop Absalon and Esbjørn Mule”.
Romansk tegelkyrka
Romansk tegelkyrka
North Åsum´s Church
North Åsum´s Church
Gumlösa Church
Gumlösa Church
The Danish Big Power
The Danish Big Power
Saxo
Saxo

Revolt in Scania
In 1180 Absalon tried to introduce bishop´s tithe and celibacy for the priests. In connecction with this a revolt broke out in Scania.
(This revolt is described in Saxo´s history of Denmark chapter 15 and 16, but also in the obituary of Lund´s Cathedral from the 13th century.
In Liber Daticus that, which is comprehensively described by Saxo, is reproduced. The reasons for the revolt are comprehensively depicted in the older Zealand chronicle from approximately 1300.

Central Power or Not
The protests originated, according to this source, not only in the introduction of bishop´s tithe, but also because the Scanian population felt humiliated by the increasing authority of the church and Absalon´s favouring of his Zealand relatives.
The Scanians showed their discontent by refusing to pay tribute to the new king Knud IV (Valdemar´s son), who had been appointed and crowned with the support of the church. Archbishop Absalon answered with military power to force the Scanians to acknowledge the new king.
It was obvious that a dividing line had come into existence between the central power and the population.

Consolidation

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Valdmar Sejr (1202-1241) and archbishop Anders Sunes continued their close cooperation between king and church. The central power tried to adjust the legislature to a Christian central governed country.


Anders Sunesen after Absalon
Absalon died in 1201 and was succeeded by his relative Anders Sunes, who held the archbishop seat until 1223. His contemporary on the royal throne was Valdemar Sejr (1202-41). Even Anders Sunesen´s four brothers had important posts. His brother Peder became bishop in Roskilde.
He started the building of the cathedral there, and he was also the man behind the original Our Lady Chruch in Copenhagen.

Educated and Political Active
Anders Sunesen was educated and internationally orientated. He was active politically and wanted to develop the close cooperation with the royal power and he participated in the expansion of the Danish Baltic empire.
Anders Sunesen
Anders Sunesen

Control over Central Power
The development of the domestic circumstances was marked by the strong control of the central power. The royal power as well as the ecclesiastical power wanted to change the legislature in order for it to fit in a central governed society. This can be studied in King Valdemar´s funeral book from 1231, where the king´s right of property and relation to the magnate families are determined. In the Jutland Law from 1241 the relationship between king, church and magnates are described.
Valdemar´s Property Book
Valdemar´s Property Book

New Legislature
Anders Sunesen engaged in the adapting of the legislature to a Christian view. He fought against the vendetta, which was typical of the old family society, but it did not fit into his Christian ethics or the society, which was developing. The old proof of innocence by carrying red hot iron in the bare hands, should be exchanged by a right to plead innocent under oath.
He also wanted to adapt the legislature on marriage to the Christian outlook on life that it is a sacrament and thus an ecclesiastical affair.
The Scanian Law
The Scanian Law

The Leader
It was natural for a talented and educated man like Sunesen to be interested in the spreading of education. It was very important to improve the education of the ignorant priests in order for the view of the church on the world and society to be spread.
In 1223 Anders Sunesen retired and spent his last years in Ivö in north eastern Scania. He was ill, probably leprous, and he died in 1228. He is buried in Lund´s Cathedral.
Anders Sunesens sarcophagus
Anders Sunesens sarcophagus
Anders Sunesen
Anders Sunesen

Church and Monastery

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The largest building project in Sound history are the many churches and monasteries, which were built in the MiddleAges.

A great deal of the churches and monasteries are preserved and via their architecture, their murals and so on, we have here an eminent source for the understanding of the past.

The Church

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Between 1100 and 1250 around 2500 churches were built in Denmark. It was an enormous investment and testifies to the impact of the church and the dynamic, which was prevalent at the time.

Building the Churches
We may have difficulties imagining the vast investment, which was needed to build the churches. In the early Middle Ages more than 2500 churches were built in the Danish area. This testifies to the strong grip the Christian church had on the population.

Churches among the People
The locations of the medieval churches can supply us with a picture of where people lived. Every area had a church, but there were some exceptions. Those were Roskilde, Lund and Helsingborg, which were archbishoprics. They had a special significance so they had 23 churches. Helsingborg had 6 churches.
Church Building
Church Building

Building Material
In the beginning the churches were built of wood, the so-called stave churches, but from the middle of the 11th century they began to build stone churches.
The building material in the Sound region was usually limestone, which was cut to a cube form. This almost square stone was called ashlar. (The oldest preserved stone church in the North is Dalby Church outside Lund).
Sometimes the ashlar was supplemented with other stones from fields. (Example of such a mixture of building materials can be seen in the southern wall of Tveje Merløse Church).
In the 12th century it became more common with tile and early examples of the the use of tile are Gumlösa Church in Scania and Tikøb Church in Zealand.
Vä Church
Vä Church
Tveje Merløse Church
Tveje Merløse Church
Bjernede Church
Bjernede Church
Bjernede Kirke
Bjernede Kirke

Round Churches
There are examples of special kinds of ground solutions for the medieval churches. The round churches, which are typical of Bornholm, are special. In Helsingborg the Michael Chapel at the castle a round church and in Zealand Bjernede Church is the only example.
Østerlars Church
Østerlars Church
Portal
Portal
Nylars-Cross
Nylars-Cross
Nylars Church
Nylars Church
Portal Nylars Church
Portal Nylars Church

Ground Plan
Most churches had a simple ground plan. One big room was for the parishioners. This room was called the aisle or the nave. This room was extended with the choir, which ended in an apse, where the altar was placed. The aisle and the choir was often bounded with a vault, the so-called triumphal arch.
The big churches in Dalby and Lund had a much more sophisticated ground plan. The nave or the aisle in these churches looked like the Roman basilica, which meant that the aisle had three naves, of which the one in the middle was elevated and let the light in. In these churches there were also crypts and Lund´s Cathedral was given the form of a Latin cross.
Roman Ground Plan
Roman Ground Plan
Lund´s Cathedral
Lund´s Cathedral

Magnate Churches
The magnate churches differed from the ordinary churches. The often had twin towers and a gallery for the prominent.
Tveje Merløse Church
Tveje Merløse Church
Fjenneslev´s church
Fjenneslev´s church
Aakirkeby Church
Aakirkeby Church

Roman Murals

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The murals in the Roman churches were educational aids in the learning of the Christian faith. They are richly represented in the Scanian and Zealand churches.
The murals, which were done on the walls of the churches, was part of the Roman style. These were often done on the wall, which is called the triumphal wall, which separated the choir from the aisle. The triumphal wall had a big vault (the triumphal arch), in which a triumph crucifix hung. The motif on this wall was taken from the bible and was often a series of pictures. It was a simple and effective way of spreading the message of the gospel. Sometimes there were pictures of the founders of the church and benefactors.
Roman Ground Plan
Roman Ground Plan
Judgment Day Motif
Judgment Day Motif
Christ Scenes
Christ Scenes
Triumphal Arch Painting
Triumphal Arch Painting

Travelling Workshops
Fjenneslev Church ornamented by the Finja-workshop from Scania, while the Jørlunde-workshop mainly worked in North Zealand and is presumed to have been connected to the Hvide-family, perhaps as artisans in their service.
While the lengthy Byzantine-influenced reproductions are characteristic of the Finja-workshop, one of the marks of the Jørlunde-workshop is the use of stucco in connection with the paintings. Ordinarily the Roman mural is considered somewhat rigid and immovable, but in the works of the Jørlunde-workshop, figures with movement and plasticity are common.
Jørlunde Kirke
Jørlunde Kirke

The Madonna-Motif
The Madonna-motif, which is known in innumerable variations from books and icons, is also present in the murals. As in this example from a niche altar in Måløv Church, which is Byzantine influenced and perhaps with a script as the source. In Tveje Merløse Church there is a Madonna picture close to the women´s entrance, towards the west wall with the magnate gallery, which also features the only known painting on a west wall.
Madonna Motif in Målöv Church
Madonna Motif in Målöv Church
Madonna in Tveje Merlöse Church
Madonna in Tveje Merlöse Church

Majestas Domini
In many apses ”Majestas Domini" (The power of the Lord) were painted, which was a common motif in the Roman style. In this motif Jesus sits with an almond-shaped halo on a rainbow throne. The four symbols of the evangelists often surround the whole picture. This composition has its model in Byzantine emperor pictures. A fine example of this motif is in Vä Church outside Kristianstad. The Majestas Domini motif is very common in Scania and in Zealand.

The Central Power
Jesus as the mighty ruler could easily be connected to the power ambitions of the church and the royal power.
Majestas Domini in Vä Church
Majestas Domini in Vä Church
Majestas Domini
Majestas Domini
Majestas-Motif
Majestas-Motif
Figures
Figures

The Baptismal Font

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The art of sculpture reaches a high level in the early Middle Ages, mainly on the many fonts, which also were an important commodity. Fonts from Gotland are common in North Germany.

In the Sound region they mainly used limestone, but there are some in granite, which is the preferred material in West Denmark. Many fonts have been painted originally.

The Font
The fact that there had to be fonts in the churches, was originally decided at the synod in Leda in 594. The font should be made of stone and placed in the west end of the church near the main entrance. Later on, however, it was moved to the choir. Originally baptism was by submergence, which is why the oldest fonts have a large hollow. Younger fonts often have a basin of richly decorated metal, for instance beaten silver or brass.
In the Sound region we know the fonts from the Early Middle Ages. It was sandstone fonts made of local materials or from Gotland. Granite fonts mainly originate from the west Danish, Jutland area.
The font in Aakirkeby
The font in Aakirkeby
Aakirkeby,
Aakirkeby,
Aakirkeby
Aakirkeby
Dalby Church. The font.
Dalby Church. The font.
Dalby
Dalby
Gumlösa
Gumlösa
The font from Tikøb Church
The font from Tikøb Church
Font in Bjäresjö
Font in Bjäresjö

Monasteries

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The first monasteries were founded as early as the 11th century in Denmark. When the Cistercians monasteries came in the middle of the 12th century they became the centres of the development of agriculture. In the beginning of the 13th century mendicant monasteries were founded in the cities.

Early Monastery Orders
Parallel to the extensive church building, monasteries were built. The Augustine and Benedictine orders were early monastery orders. Both these orders built on the rules, which originated from Augustine (4th century) and Benedict of Nursia (6th century). Most well known is Benedict of Nursia´s monastery vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. In the monasteries they followed a schedule, where prayers, work and service alternated in a fixed rhythm. The proverb ”pray and work” is closely linked to these monasteries, which were founded in the Sound region as early as the 11th century. In Lund a Benedictine monastery was founded in 1080, which was named the All Saints´ monastery. In Dalby an Augustine monastery was founded in the beginning of the 12th century. The monastery grew rapidly and soon became one of the richest in the district and in Næstved a Benedictine monastery was founded in 1135.
Cistercians
Cistercians
Næstved Monastery Church
Næstved Monastery Church

The Monasteries Importence to Produktion
The monasteries had important tasks, when it came to the spreading of the Christian doctrine, but they also had great importance when it came to the introduction of new agricultural methods and cultural plants. Christianity was thus deeply rooted in the medieval agricultural society. Gradually many monasteries in Europe developed into real companies, where the main occupation was production. They produced and sold wine, animals, corn and even iron goods. This is why there were monastery reformers, who wanted to take the monasteries back to their original tasks.

The Cistercian Order
The Cistercian order from around the 12th century was such an order. It started in Citeaux (in Latin Cistercium) in France and its founder was Bernhard of Clairvaux. The archbishop Eskil in Lund was his personal friend and that could be the reason that Cistercian monasteries were founded very early on both sides of the Sound, in Herrevar in Scania in 1145 and in Esrum in Zealand in 1151. Sorø monastery, which was founded by the Benedictines in 1151, took on the Cistercians´ rules in 1161.
The immigrating monks, who founded the early Cistercian monasteries, took with them building traditions and this in connection with the order´s regulations on the appearance of the monastery, makes it plausible to talk of a Cistercian building style.
According to the rules the Cistercian monasteries had to be located in the villages and the monastery should participate in the work of clearing the forest and create new cultivations. The commitment to new cultivations also made these monasteries knowledge centres for modern agriculture methods.
Esrum Monastery
Esrum Monastery
Bernard of Clairvaux
Bernard of Clairvaux
Cistercian monk
Cistercian monk

New Piety
These reform monasteries aimed at a more heartfelt piety. The worshipping took on a more intimate character and was close to the ideas of the mysticism. The abbot in Äbelholt Monastery gave examples of this perception in his letters.

The Maria Cult
Another sign of the transition to a more heartfelt and intimate piety was the upturn of the Maria Cult in the monasteries in the 12th century. In the monasteries the monks saw life as a struggle against evil and the fear of the just God made them seek help from the motherly Mary, who prayed for the sinners. Archbishop Anders Sunesen wrote one of the many Mary hymns, which were performed with music. His paean to May was called Missus Gabriel de Coelis and the theme of the hymn is the Annunciation. It is about Mary´s intimate relationship with God, a relationship that is typical of the Mysticism.

The Monasteries´ Land
In the course of the Middle Ages churches and monasteries become large landowners like the king and the squires. The archbishopric in Lund, for instance, had more than 300 properties and all of Bornholm at its disposal. In the course of the Middle Ages the monasteries in Scania came to own more than 2000 properties. A large number of the estates were acquired as gifts, donated to the monasteries.
After Peter Bogorm (Pierre Le Mangueur) around the end of the 12th century invented Purgatory (Purgatore) they now operated with a state between heaven and hell, an hour of reckoning, whose length could be shortened by your own and purchased prayers and masses.
This increased the power of the church over the souls and added to the land and wealth of the churches and monasteries.
Originally there were strict rules about the right of inheritance of the church, but it was circumvented by the donation of soul gifts. Even though it was prohibited for the monks to buy land until 1216, it was circumvented, when landowners mortgaged an estate to the monastery, which then took over the land, if the mortgage wasn´t paid.

The Dominicans and the Franciscans
Another group, which also reacted against the rich monasteries, were the mendicant order. But these had a quite different working method. Instead of withdrawing to contemplative and heartfelt piety the mendicant friars wanted to work for the public in an outgoing way. They preached, helped the poor and nursed the sick. In order to finance their activities the monks begged for money. This is why their monasteries were placed in the cities, where there were trade.
The most prominent mendicant orders were the Dominicans (the black monks) and the Franciscans (the grey monks). These orders had been founded by Domenicus (1170-1221) and Franciscus (1182-1226). A Dominican monastery was founded in Lund in 1222 – the first in the North and a Franciscan was founded in 1232. A Franciscan monastery was founded in Ystad and in 1270 a Dominican monastery was founded in Helsingborg, which was dedicated to St. Nicolaus.
Franciscan Monastery in Ystad
Franciscan Monastery in Ystad

Æbelholt Monastery

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Æblholt Monastery was from the beginning an Augustine monastery, which was moved from Eskildsø to Æbelholt in 1175. The abbot Wilhelm tried hard to get a functioning monasstery building and he was sainted in 1224.

Aebelholt Monastery
The source material around the establishing and development of the monasteries the the Sound region is limited. But Äbelholt monastery is an exception. There is a thorough description of this monastery. In reality it is a biography of the abbot Wilhelm of Äbelholt. This source is biased in the sense that it is written with the purpose of canonizing Wilhelm, but the description can still provide interesting information on the activity in the monastery. The writers are probably archbishop Anders Sunesen from Lund, his nephew Peder Jacobson, who was the bishop in Roskilde and abbot Thomas from Herreva´s monastery.

From Eskilsö to Ebelholt
Æbelholt Monastery was founded on land, which was donated by the Hvide-family. A clearing in Grib Forest with a fertile islet in a small lake and with a stream close by. Not the best agricultural soil, but Absalon as well as his relation Peder Sunesen(1161-1214), who succeeds Absalon as the bishop in Roskilde in 1191 and becomes the king´s chancellor in 1201, supported the monastery continuously.
In abbot Wilhelm´s correspondence there are some letters addressed for the archbishop “the Lund gentleman”, who in this case must be Absalon. The letters testify to large problems with the running of the monasteries. The death of the patron Peder Sunesen is deplored and the misfortune, which have befallen the monastery as its barns have burnt down twice.

The Augustine Order
There was an Augustine order in Eskilsø in the Roskilde inlet, but the monastery was moved to Äbelholt in North Zealand in 1175. Absalon´s generosity made it possible for them to move to new buildings in Äbelholt. Here they had built a church and a house for the canons. In abbot Wilhelm´s letters to the archbishop ”the gentleman from Lund” is mentioned, which is probably Absalon. It appears that there are difficulties making the monastery function, but Wilhelm made a lot a changes and tightened up the monastery regulations.
Another letter to the abbot in Esrum describes problems with the water supplies. Absalon had donated lead pipes to the monastery´s water system, but it was difficult to make them function.

Functions
In 1183 there were 25 monastery monks and the monastery also functioned as a hostel for visitors. Sometimes more than a 100 persons were fed and the board and lodging was free.
It was thanks to the engagement of Wilhelm that the neglected monastery developed and he was canonized in 1224. After this Äbelholt became a popular resort.
Æbelholt Monastery
Æbelholt Monastery
Æbelholt
Æbelholt
St. Wilhelm
St. Wilhelm
Alsønderup Church
Alsønderup Church

New Church
In 1176 the began the building of a new stone church.

The Art of Medicine

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Æbelholt Monastery developed into a centre of nursing and medicine. Excavations from the 1930´s documented the monks´ knowledge of medicine and nursing and it gave an insight into the diseases of the Middle Ages.


Medical Centre
Extensive excavations at Äbeholt monastery have confirmed that the monastery was a medical centre. Abbot Wilhelm himself used the name ”the hospital monks”.

Cut Injuries
Many times the people in Äbelholt apparently had conflicts, as the excavations have shown many cut injuries.
Violent Times
Violent Times
?
?

The Medieval Medicine
The medieval medicine was developed in the monasteries. In the Salerno monastery in southern Italy many medical and surgical scripts were written. The Salerno school had the classic theory of the four body fluids: The blood in the veins, mucus in the brain and the lungs, the yellow gall in the liver and the black gall in the spleen. Different characteristics were attached to these fluids. Blood was warm and wet, mucus cold and wet the yellow gall warm and dry and the black gall cold and dry.
The view of the diseases was also linked to the theory of the four elements (earth, water, air and fire). The different organs in the body were considered to have a connection to the position of the constellation on the firmament. Through the study of the stars you could be guided in whether you should regulate the balance of the fluids, which could be done by bloodletting. They thought that diseases were caused by an imbalance of the four body fluids.
?
?

Herbs
This imbalance could also be discovered through the examining of urine and the controlling of the pulse. Medicine was prescribed, made by different herbs, which was to counteract the imbalance. In Roskilde the canon Henrik Harpenstreng (1164-1244) wrote a book on herb medicine. In here you can see how widespread the employment of herbs was in the Middle Ages.
The herbal garden
The herbal garden
Cross-Spurge
Cross-Spurge

Surgical Operations
In Äbelholt Monastery surgical operations were performed. Trephine (they drilled a hole in the cranium) was done and even operations, which had to do with the healing of fractures. A large part of the medical activities were the healing of wounds.
The medical treatment in the monasteries was much debated because part of the church prohibited that priests participated in the treatments, which included bloodletting. Sometimes the medical profession was called in question. Bernhard Clairvaux felt that ”the consulting of doctors and medicine does not benefit religion and is in conflict with purity”.
Violent Times
Violent Times
Spinal Column
Spinal Column
Æbelholt Kloster
Æbelholt Kloster
Trephination
Trephination
Instruments
Instruments

The Universe

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In the 28 years from 1201-1228, when Anders Sunesen sits as archbishop in Lund, he consolidates the church influence on everyday life and world view.

The centre of the world is often Jerusalem in medieval maps and the spiritual centre is St.Peter´s Cathedral in Rome.

The Spiritual Power of the Church
In the period from the end of the 1000th century and onwards until the year 1200 a strengthened royal power in co-operation with the church and magnate families create a medieval society, where the royal power in co-operation with the leading men of the realm exercise the secular power, while the church´s centre in the archbishopric in Lund has the spiritual suzerainty in the region.
In the 28 years, from 1201-1228, where Anders Sunesen is the archbishop in Lund, he consolidates, in different ways, the church´s influence on everyday life and view of the world.
The world´s spiritual centre in medieval maps is often Jerusalem and the spiritual centre is St. Peter´s Cathedral in Rome, but that does not prevent the archbishoprics in establishing regional centres of considerable stature. In Anders Sunesen´s time Lund becomes a considerable spiritual and intellectual centre – a world centre, as can be seen in the church´s astronomical clock, which however is from a later time.
In Lund the dissemination of academic learning was an important matter, when it came to educate the clergy and spread the church´s world view. Anders Sunesen himself writes the long educational poem Hexaëmeron, which among other things holds a picture of the bible interpretation of the period and the reigning view of the world. Anders Sunesen writes about the story of creation and the heavenly order.
Hexaëmeron
Hexaëmeron
Vitskøvle
Vitskøvle
Jerusalem in the Centre
Jerusalem in the Centre

The Physical View of the World
It is also around this time that the church decides to adopt central parts of the views of the classical philosopher Aristotle on the structure of the physical world, a so-called cosmology. Aristotle perceived the world as consisting of four elements, which were marked by a mutual purpose.
The four elements, earth, water, air and fire exit in the same sphere, or area, but will according to nature go upwards or downwards. The earth, which is the heaviest element, will go downwards, or towards the centre of the universe, the globe, whereas water with lesser weight will camp on it. The air, which is even lighter, will go upwards, like bubbles through water. Fire, which goes up in the air, is the lightest element.
In medieval representations, the four elements are depicted as organized layers on top of each other, but in ”reality”, they are in constant movement. This sub-lunar (under the moon) world is in contrast to the external universe, where the planets move in regular courses and consist of a more complete element (the ether). Aristotle perceived the ether world as a perfect celestial world. This is consistent with a Christian understanding and this physical view of the world is not challenged until the 16th century.
The Earth in the Centre
The Earth in the Centre
Nature
Nature
Pickture of the universe 1474
Pickture of the universe 1474

Link

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The link icon opens for homepages, where you will find further information on the period 1050-1250. Some of these also offer an English version or a summary.

©  Øresundstid 2009